The Sasanian military authorities used a fairly wide arsenal of forms and methods for reconnaissance and espionage, which were mainly determined by the specific features of Sasanian warfare and of Persia’s military opponents, geographical conditions of war theaters as well as peculiarities of social, economic and political systems of the states and peoples who were the enemies of the Sasanian Empire. As for the scope of Sasanian military intelligence, the Persians implemented both strategic and tactical intelligence activities, but tactical intelligence played the leading role among them, which was completely in line with the overall level of military art in the age of Late Antiquity.
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